IT Job description

Job description
IT technical support officers monitor and maintain the computer systems and networks of an organisation. They install and configure computer systems, diagnose hardware/software faults and solve technical problems, either over the phone or face-to-face.
Organisations rely on accessing information via computers. Problems may arise through systems failure, operator error or user misunderstanding. Businesses cannot afford to be without the whole system, or individual workstations, for more than the minimum time taken to repair or replace them.
Technical support officers are sometimes known as help desk operators, technicians or maintenance engineers. The work is as much about understanding how packages are used as applying detailed technical knowledge.
Typical work activities
In essence, technical support officers are responsible for ensuring the smooth running of computer systems. Tasks vary depending on the size and structure of the organisation, but will typically include:
• installing and configuring computer systems;
• monitoring and maintaining computer systems and networks;
• talking staff/clients through a series of actions, either face to face or over the telephone;
• troubleshooting system and network problems and diagnosing and solving hardware/software faults;
• finding solutions to problems, be it through creating a desktop shortcut or fixing a major fault on the operating system;
• replacing parts as required;
• providing support, including procedural, documentation;
• following diagrams and written instructions to repair a fault or set up a system;
• running network applications to support systems and users;
• supporting new applications;
• setting up new users;
• responding within agreed time limits to call-outs;
• working continuously on a task until completion (or referral to third parties, if appropriate);
• prioritising and managing several open cases at one time;
• rapidly establishing a good working relationship with other professionals (e.g., contract businesses) in order to make necessary repairs;
• testing and evaluating new technology;
• conducting electrical safety checks on computer equipment.

Technical Support Job Description
So you're in the market for a new job and you think a technical support position is right up your alley. The only way to make sure is to learn about what a technical support person does, what qualifications you need and what skills you need to obtain or possess. Then you'll be able to pursue your new career.
Duties
1. In order to understand what a technical support job entails, you first have to learn what your daily duties will be. The primary role of a technical support person is to provide clients support by resolving their technical issues via email, phone and other electronic medium. It may mean that you have to configure computer equipment such as Internet connections or configure software to connect to Internet application servers. You'll also provide training and assistance to help clients learn how to use their computer hardware or software products. Once you obtain a general understanding of the problem or issue the client is experiencing, it will be your job to identify, and correct or advise the client on how to resolve the issue they're having.
Skills
2. Skill requirements may vary by company depending on the hardware or software you'll be providing technical support for. A technical support position does require prompt responses to client support related emails, phone calls and other electronic communications. It typically requires that you have experience with the hardware and software issues that you'll be resolving. Because you'll be working with a computer, it usually requires your Internet skill set to be quite extensive. Also, because you'll be dealing directly with customers, technical support positions require excellent oral and written communication, interpersonal, organizational and presentation skills.
Education or Experience
3. Education requirements and experience can vary according to the level of technical support you'll be required to provide. Most companies require beginner customer support employees to have at least a one-year certificate related to computers from a college or technical school or at least three to six months of related experience or training.
Reasoning Ability
4. Because you will be troubleshooting and resolving customer problems, you also must have the ability to solve practical problems. You'll have to deal with a variety of situations, where no two problems are exactly the same. You'll need to be able to interpret and provide instructions orally and in writing.
Computer Skills
5. In order to perform a technical support job successfully, you'll also need extensive knowledge and experience with Contact Management Systems (CMS), database software; Internet software and word processing software.

CS102: Topic #2 - Variables and Expressions

The topic of variables is one of the most important in C or any other high-level programming language.

We will start with an example.  Here is a simple, totally useless example of a variable in use:

#include <stdio.h>

int main(void)


{


int x;

x = 5;


printf("The value of x is %d.\n", x);


return 0;


}

In this example, "x" is the name of a variable.  The line "int x;" is an example of a local declaration.  We are declaring that "x" is the name of a variable of type "int" which stands for "integer".  So "x" can take on integer values.  When the computer sees a declaration like this, it sets aside a space in memory to store the value of the variable.  The line "x = 5;" sets the value of "x" to 5.  We've previously seen "printf" used to print just strings.  The %d is a special code that causes the "printf" function to fill in to this part of the string with an integer value specified after the string.  If an integer variable appears after the string, the value of that variable is printed out.  You could also include a constant.  If the value 5 is used instead of the variable "x", the output of this program would be the same.  Either way, it causes the string "The value of x is 5." to be printed on its own line.

Technically speaking, a variable is a named memory location.  Every variable has a type, which defines the possible values that the variable can take, and an identifier, which is the name by which the variable is referred.

 

In order to use a variable in a C program, you must first declare it.  You declare a variable with a declaration.  As in the example shown above, a declaration of a variable consists of the variable’s type followed by the variable’s name and then a semicolon.  There must be whitespace between the type and the name.  It is also possible to declare multiple variables on one line, as we’ll see later.

You probably have some notion of a variable from algebra.  In algebra, most variables are single letters, like "x" or "y".  These are acceptable variable names in C also, but when programming in C, you often you use several characters to create descriptive variable names.  Here are the rules that bind possible variable names, or identifiers, in C:

Rules for identifiers:

1. The first character must be an alphabetic character (lower-case or capital letters) or an underscore ‘_’.



2. All characters must be alphabetic characters, digits, or underscores.



3. The first 31 characters of the identifier are significant.  Identifiers that share the same first 31 characters may be indistinguishable from each other.



4. Cannot duplicate a reserved word.  A reserved word is one that has special meaning to C.

Valid identifiers:


x


Name


first_name


name2


_maxInt

Invalid identifiers:


2name             /* Can’t start with number */


first name       /* Can’t use ‘ ’ */


first-name       /* Can’t use ‘-’ */


int                    /* Can’t use reserved word */

The type, or data type, of a variable determines a set of values that the variable might take and a set of operations that can be applied to those values.

Four standard data types provided for by C are:


int – used for variables that can take on numeric integer values.


char – used for variables that can take one character from the computer’s "alphabet" as a value.  Most computers use the American Standard Code for Information Interchange (ASCII) alphabet.


float – used for variables that can take on numeric values with a fractional part.


void – used mainly for functions that don’t take any parameters or functions that don’t return a value.

In addition to these basic types, there are modifiers that you can apply to the types.  For instance, you can specify that a variable is a signed int (one that can take both positive and negative values) or an unsigned int (one that can only take positive values).

Remember that a variable is a named memory location.  Memory of a computer is divided into bytes.  A byte is a sequence of 8 bits.  A bit is a 0 or a 1.  The number of bytes that a variable occupies in memory determines the number of possible values that it can take.  C does not specify the size of an integer variable.  Most computers today use 32 bit integers (4 bytes), although until recently, many used 16 bit integers (two bytes).  One way to control the size of an integer variable is to specify that it is a short int (16 bits) or a long int (32 bits).

Let’s say that an integer uses 4 bytes, or 32 bits, of memory.  Then there are 2^32 possible values that this variable can take (corresponding to the 2^32 possible combinations of 0’s and 1’s).

A 32 bit integer can have 2^32 = 4,294,967,296 possible values.


A signed 32 bit integer can have values ranging from –2,147,483,648 to 2,147,483,647.


An unsigned 32 bit integer can gave values ranging from 0 to 4,294,967,295.

A 16 bit integer can have 2^16 = 65,536 possible values.


A signed 16 bit integer can have values ranging from –32,768 to 32,767.


An unsigned 16 bit integer can have values ranging from 0 to 65,535.

A character, or "char", occupies just one byte of memory.  Remember 1 byte = 8 bits, so there are only 2^8 = 256 possible characters.  As mentioned above, the "alphabet" used by most computers is the ASCII alphabet.  There are actually only 128 characters defined in standard ASCII, corresponding to the numbers from 0 to 127.  So characters with values between 128 and 255 won’t be consistent from computer to computer.

Here are some of the important ranges within the ASCII character set:


48 – 57: the digits ‘0’ through ‘9’


65 – 90: the capital letters ‘A’ through ‘Z’


97 – 122: the lowercase letters ‘a’ through ‘z’

Here is a simple, useless example of a program using a character variable:

#include <stdio.h>

int main(void)


{


char x;

x = ‘Q’;


            printf("The value of x is %c.\n", x);


            return 0;


}

This program prints out the string "The value of x is Q." on its own line.

There are two ways to specify a character in C.  A simple character that appears on the keyboard can usually be specified by just typing the character within single quotes, like in this example.  The other way is to specify it with a number, the number whose ASCII code represents the character.  Remember that the range from 65 to 90 in ASCII represents the capital letters.  This means that 81 represents Q.  So an equivalent statement to "x = ‘Q’;" would be "x  = 81".  Because x is declared to be a "char", the computer knows that the 81 represent the letter Q.

Notice that instead of "%d", the "printf" string now contains a "%c", which means that the value that gets printed in its place should be considered a character.  If a "%d" were used in the program, it would print "The value of x is 81."!

In C, the ‘=’ symbol is an assignment operator.  It causes the computer to evaluate the expression to the right of the ‘=’ and assign the value of the expression to the variable to the left of the ‘=’.  So let’s say that x is an integer.  The statement "x = 5;" will set the value of the variable named x to 5.  This is different than the use of ‘=’ in algebra, in which it is used to express a fact.  In algebra, if you see the following two lines:

x = 5;


x = 7;

They would express a contradiction.  In C, this is perfectly valid.  The first statement sets the value of x to 5.  The second resets the value of x to 7.  The value of x is no longer 5.  In fact, if these two statements appear right next to each other in a C program with nothing in between, the first of the two statements is useless, but perfectly valid.

The expression to the right of the ‘=’ doesn’t have to be a single constant.  It could be a mathematical expression, possibly containing variables.  In the following examples, we’re going to assume that x and y are integer variables.  The following statement is valid:

x = 2 * (3 + 99) / 20;

Since x is declared to be an integer, and the expression to the right of ‘=’ evaluates to 204 / 20 which is 10.2, the final value of x will be 10.  The fractional part of the expression is cut.

The following statement is also valid:

x = y + 5;

In this case, the value of x will be 5 more than the value of y.

Here is another valid statement:

x = x + 1;

In algebra, if you ever derive a formula like this, it either means that you made a mistake or that there was a contradiction between other formulas somewhere.  In C, this is a perfectly valid and very common statement.  Remember, the expression to the right of the equal sign is evaluated first, and its value is then assigned to the variable to the left.  So if x equals five when this statement is first reached, the expression to the right of ‘=’ evaluates to 6, and the value of 6 is assigned back to x.

Here is a non-valid statement:

x + 1 = 10;

In algebra, you could solve this and discover that x = 9.  In C, this is not valid.  You can not assign a value to the quantity "x+1".  Only variables can appear to the left of ‘=’.

Now consider one of the previous programs with an extra line:

#include <stdio.h>

int main(void)


{


char x;

x = ‘Q’;


x = x + 9;


            printf("The value of x is %c.\n", x);


            return 0;


}

Since "x" is a character, the statement "x = ‘Q’;" is equivalent to "x = 81".  The new value of x after the statement "x = x + 9;" will be 90, which is the ASCII code for a capital Z.  So this program prints "The value of x is Z." to the screen on its own line.

There are some special characters that have special symbolic sequences set aside to represent them.  We've already seen one case of this; the newline character is represented by ‘\n’.  It is also number 10 in the ASCII chart.  So if x is a character, then the lines "x = ‘\n’;" and "x = 10;" are equivalent.  Some other special characters are:


\t          tab


\b         backspace


\a         bell


\’          single quote


\"         double quote


\\          backslash

Here is a simple example using a float.

#include <stdio.h>

int main(void)


{


float x;

x = 2.5;


x = x * 3;


            printf("The value of x is %f.\n", x);


            return 0;


}

Note the %f in the printf string, which means that the value that gets printed in its place should be considered a float.  This may not print exactly what you expect.  This program will print the string "The value of x is 7.500000." on its own line.  It is possible to control the format of how floats get printed, but that is a later topic.

When you have multiple variables of the same type, you can declare them with multiple lines or one line.  The following three lines:

int first;


int second;


int third;

is equivalent to the following one line:

int first, second, third;

Variable in C are not necessarily initialized automatically.  You should always initialize a variable before using its value.  The following program has unpredictable behavior:

#include <stdio.h>

int main(void)


{


int x;

            /* x is not initialized, its value is not predictable */


printf("The value of x is %d.\n", x);


            return 0;


}

Since x is never initialized, there is no way of predicting its value.

Variables can be initialized while they are declared.  So the following code at the start of a function:

int x;

x = 5;

is equivalent to:

int x = 5;

If you declare multiple variables with one line and want to initialize all of them, you must specify all of their values.  For example:

int x = 0, y = 0, z = 0;

If you just used:

int x, y, z = 0; /* Only z is initialized */

only z would be initialized.

Another operator that C recognizes is known as the modulus operator.  This operator returns the remainder when one operand is divided by another.  Here’s an example:

#include <stdio.h>

int main(void)


{


int operand1 = 22, operand2 = 5, quotient, remainder;

            quotient = operand1 / operand2;


            remainder = operand1 % operand2;


printf("When %d is divided by %d the quotient is %d and the remainder is %d.\n", operand1, operand2, quotient, remainder);


            return 0;


}

This program prints the string "When 22 is divided by 5 the quotient is 4 and the remainder is 2." to the screen on its own line.

This is the first example I’ve given in which the "printf" string includes more than one variable.  It’s pretty straightforward how this works.  All instances of a special symbols in the string get replaced with values given by the corresponding expressions or variables appearing after the string, in order, separated by commas.

Two other common operators are the increment and decrement operators.  The following statements:

++x;


x++;

are both equivalent to:

x = x + 1;

while


--x;


x--;

are both equivalent to:

x = x –1;

You will often see these operators used to increment or decrement a variable that is also being used as part of an expression.  If the operator appears before the variable, the variable’s final value is used in the expression.  If the operator appears after the variable, the variable’s original value is used in the expression.  For example;

x = 5;


y = x++;

After these two statements, y will equal 5 and x will equal 6.

x = 5;


y = ++x;

After these two statements, y will equal 6 and x will equal 6.

x = 5;


y = x--;

After these two statements, y will equal 5 and x will equal 4.

x = 5;


y = --x;

After these two statements, y will equal 4 and x will equal 4.

Notice that some of the expressions we’ve been using mix variables with constants.  So far, when we’ve used numerical constants, we just specified the number outright.  Sometimes, you may want to code common constants, such as pi, so that you don't have to type in the value multiple times.  There are at least two ways to do this.  One is to use the const qualifier in the declaration of a variable.  For example:

const float pi = 3.14159;

Of course,  this is not the exact value of pi, but an approximation!

The variable pi can now be used in expressions like any other float variable, but the value can never be changed.  If your program tries to change it, the compiler will notice and give you an error.

Here is an example:

#include <stdio.h>

int main(void)


{


const float pi=3.14159;


int radius = 5;

printf("The approximate circumference of a circle with radius %d is %f.\n", radius, 2*pi*radius);


            return 0;


}

This program prints "The approximate circumference of a circle with radius 5 is 31.415901." to the screen.

Another way to do it is to use the preprocessor command "#define".  The "#define" preprocessor command causes the compiler to replace all instances of specific text with other text.  Here is an example of its use:

#include <stdio.h>

#define PI 3.14159

int main(void)


{


int radius = 5;

printf("The approximate circumference of a circle with radius %d is %f.\n", radius, 2*PI*radius);


            return 0;


}

Two things to note here:  First, there is no semicolon at the end of the "#define" line.  If there were, the semicolon would get added along with the 3.14159 wherever you see PI in the code, and this would cause an error.  Second, using "#define" can lead to some weird errors.  For instance, let’s say you define "PI" like here, and then later you try to name a variable "SPICE".  The PI would be replaced with 3.14159 by the compiler, and this would lead to an error.

Two other topics related to expressions are those of precedence and associativity.

The precedence of operators determines the order in which different operators are evaluated when they occur in the same expression.  Operators of higher precedence are applied before operators of lower precedence.

Consider the statement:

x = 2 * (140 + 60) / 20;

The precedence of multiplication and division are higher than the precedence of addition, but the precedence of parentheses is highest of all.  So the value of "x" will be 20.

If the statement was written without the parentheses:

x = 2 * 140 + 60 / 20;

Then the value of "x" will be 283.

The associativity of operators determines the order in which operators of equal precedence are evaluated when they occur in the same expression.  Most operators have a left-to-right associativity, but some have right-to-left associativity.

Here are some more examples.  Assume that x is an int:

x = 5 - 2 * 7 - 9;

The ‘*’ has a higher precedence than ‘-’ so it is evaluated first, and the statement is equivalent to:

x = 5 – 14 – 9;

The minus has left-to-right associativity, so the statement is equivalent to:

x = -18;

Also, the ‘=’ has lower precedence than either ‘-’ or ‘*’ or any other operator, and this is how C enforces the rule that the expression to the right of the ‘=’ gets evaluated first and then the resulting value gets assigned to the variable to the left of the ‘=’.

The ‘=’ itself is one of the few operators that has right-to-left associativity.  The following is actually a valid C statement, assuming that "x", "y", and "z" are integers:

x = y = z = 7;

This statement assigns the value of 7 to "z" first, then to "y", and then to "x". 

If ‘=’ was given left-to-right associativity, the old value of "y" would be assigned to "x", then the old value of "z" would be assigned to "y", and then the value of 7 would be assigned to "z".  This is pretty counter-intuitive, and that’s why ‘=’ was given right-to-left associativity!

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Chapter 1. Purpose of Computer Graphics

1.1 Early history of computer graphics

1.2 Data visualization in medicine, art and engineering

1.3 The Computer Generation

Chapter 2. Hardware concepts

2.1 Mouse ,keyboard, light pen, touch screen and tablet input hardware

2.2 Raster and vector display architecture

2.3 Architecture of simple non-graphical display terminals

2.4 Architecture of graphical display terminals including frame buffer and color manipulation techniques

2.5 Graphical architecture bottelnecks and interaction with operating system

2.6 Specialized graphical processors and future development directions

Chapter 3. Two dimensional algorithms

3.1 Direction and incremental line drawing algorithms

3.2 Bresenham algorithm

3.3 Two-dimensional world to screen viewing transformation

3.4 Two-dimensional rotation, scaling and translation transforms

3.5 Current Transformation concepts and advantages

3.6 Data Structure concepts and CAD packages

Chapter 4. Graphical language

4.1 Need for machine independent graphical language

4.2 Discussion of available languages

4.3 Detail discussion of graphical languages to be used in projects

Chapter 5. Three-dimensional graphics

5.1 Three-dimensional world to screen perspective viewingtransform

5.2 Extension of two dimensional transforms to three dimensions

5.3 Methods of generating non-planar surfaces

5.4 Hidden line and hidden surface removal techniques

5.5 Need of shading in engineering data visualization

5.6 Algorithms to simulate ambient, diffuse and specular reflections

5.7 Constant, gouraud and phong shading models

5.8 Specialized and future three-dimensional display architectures

Chapter 6. Project Mangaement and Development

6.1 Review of project management techniques

6.2 Review of Program Debugging techniques

6.3 Project planning and description

6.4 Project development

6.5 Project report and presentation

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CSS

Cascading Style Sheets (CSS) is a style sheet language used to describe the presentation (that is, the look and formatting) of a document written in a markup language. Its most common application is to style web pages written in HTML and XHTML, but the language can be applied to any kind of XML document, including SVG and XUL.

CSS is designed primarily to enable the separation of document content (written in HTML or a similar markup language) from document presentation, including elements such as the colors, fonts, and layout. This separation can improve content accessibility, provide more flexibility and control in the specification of presentation characteristics, enable multiple pages to share formatting, and reduce complexity and repetition in the structural content (such as by allowing for tableless web design). CSS can also allow the same markup page to be presented in different styles for different rendering methods, such as on-screen, in print, by voice (when read out by a speech-based browser or screen reader) and on Braille-based, tactile devices. While the author of a document typically links that document to a CSS stylesheet, readers can use a different stylesheet, perhaps one on their own computer, to override the one the author has specified.

CSS specifies a priority scheme to determine which style rules apply if more than one rule matches against a particular element. In this so-called cascade, priorities or weights are calculated and assigned to rules, so that the results are predictable.

The CSS specifications are maintained by the World Wide Web Consortium (W3C). Internet media type (MIME type) text/css is registered for use with CSS by RFC 2318 (March 1998).

Advantages

[edit]Flexibility

By combining CSS with the functionality of a Content Management System, a considerable amount of flexibility can be programmed into content submission forms. This allows a contributor, who may not be familiar or able to understand or edit CSS or HTML code to select the layout of an article or other page they are submitting on-the-fly, in the same form. For instance, a contributor, editor or author of an article or page might be able to select the number of columns and whether or not the page or article will carry an image. This information is then passed to the Content Management System, and the program logic will evaluate the information and determine, based on a certain number of combinations, how to apply classes and IDs to the HTML elements, therefore styling and positioning them according to the pre-defined CSS for that particular layout type. When working with large-scale, complex sites, with many contributors such as news and informational sites, this advantage weighs heavily on the feasibility and maintenance of the project.

[edit]Separation of Content from Presentation

CSS facilitates publication of content in multiple presentation formats based on nominal parameters. Nominal parameters include explicit user preferences, different web browsers, the type of device being used to view the content (a desktop computer or mobile Internet device), the geographic location of the user and many other variables.

[edit]Site-wide consistency

Main articles: Separation of presentation and content and Style sheet (web development)

When CSS is used effectively, in terms of inheritance and "cascading," a global stylesheet can be used to affect and style elements site-wide. If the situation arises that the styling of the elements should need to be changed or adjusted, these changes can be made easily, simply by editing a few rules in the global stylesheet. Before CSS, this sort of maintenance was more difficult, expensive and time-consuming.

[edit]Bandwidth

A stylesheet will usually be stored in the browser cache, and can therefore be used on multiple pages without being reloaded, increasing download speeds and reducing data transfer over a network.

[edit]Page reformatting

Main article: Progressive enhancement

With a simple change of one line, a different stylesheet can be used for the same page. This has advantages for accessibility, as well as providing the ability to tailor a page or site to different target devices. Furthermore, devices not able to understand the styling will still display the content.



























Limitations

This article's Criticism or Controversy section(s) may mean the article does not present a neutral point of view of the subject. It may be better to integrate the material in such sections into the article as a whole.



This article may contain original research or unverified claims. Please improve the article by adding references. See the talk pagefor details. (March 2009)



Some noted disadvantages of using "pure" CSS include:

Inconsistent browser support

Different browsers will render CSS layout differently as a result of browser bugs or lack of support for CSS features. For example Microsoft Internet Explorer, whose older versions, such as IE 6.0, implemented many CSS 2.0 properties in its own, incompatible way, misinterpreted a significant number of important properties, such as width, height, and float.[15]Numerous so-called CSS "hacks" must be implemented to achieve consistent layout among the most popular or commonly used browsers. Pixel precise layouts can sometimes be impossible to achieve across browsers.

Selectors are unable to ascend

CSS offers no way to select a parent or ancestor of element that satisfies certain criteria. A more advanced selector scheme (such as XPath) would enable more sophisticated stylesheets. However, the major reasons for the CSS Working Group rejecting proposals for parent selectors are related to browser performance and incremental rendering issues.

One block declaration cannot explicitly inherit from another

Inheritance of styles is performed by the browser based on the containment hierarchy of DOM elements and the specificity of the rule selectors, as suggested by the section 6.4.1 of the CSS2 specification.[16] Only the user of the blocks can refer to them by including class names into the class attribute of a DOM element.

Vertical control limitations

While horizontal placement of elements is generally easy to control, vertical placement is frequently unintuitive, convoluted, or impossible. Simple tasks, such as centering an element vertically or getting a footer to be placed no higher than bottom of viewport, either require complicated and unintuitive style rules, or simple but widely unsupported rules.[clarification needed]

Absence of expressions

There is currently no ability to specify property values as simple expressions (such as margin-left: 10% - 3em + 4px;). This is useful in a variety of cases, such as calculating the size of columns subject to a constraint on the sum of all columns. However, a working draft with a calc() value to address this limitation has been published by the CSS WG.[17] Internet Explorer versions 5 to 7 support a proprietary expression() statement,[18] with similar functionality. This proprietary expression() statement is no longer supported from Internet Explorer 8 onwards, except in compatibility modes. This decision was taken for "standards compliance, browser performance, and security reasons".[18]

Lack of orthogonality

Multiple properties often end up doing the same job. For instance, position, display and float specify the placement model, and most of the time they cannot be combined meaningfully. A display: table-cell element cannot be floated or given position: relative, and an element with float: left should not react to changes of display. In addition, some properties are not defined in a flexible way that avoids creation of new properties. For example, you should use the "border-spacing" property on table element instead of the "margin-*" property on table cell elements. This is because according to the CSS specification, internal table elements do not have margins.

Margin collapsing

Margin collapsing is, while well-documented and useful, also complicated and is frequently not expected by authors, and no simple side-effect-free way is available to control it.

Float containment

CSS does not explicitly offer any property that would force an element to contain floats. Multiple properties offer this functionality as a side effect, but none of them are completely appropriate in all situations. As there will be an overflow when the elements, which is contained in a container, use float property. Generally, either "position: relative" or "overflow: hidden"[19] solves this. Floats will be different according to the web browser size and resolution, but positions can not.

Lack of multiple backgrounds per element

Highly graphical designs require several background images for every element, and CSS can support only one. Therefore, developers have to choose between adding redundant wrappers around document elements, or dropping the visual effect. This is partially addressed in the working draft of the CSS3 backgrounds module,[20] which is already supported in Safari and Konqueror.

Control of Element Shapes

CSS currently only offers rectangular shapes. Rounded corners or other shapes may require non-semantic markup. However, this is addressed in the working draft of the CSS3 backgrounds module.[21]

Lack of Variables

CSS contains no variables. This makes it necessary to use error-prone "replace-all" techniques to change fundamental constants, such as the color scheme or various heights and widths. Server-side generation of CSS scripts, using for example PHP, can help to mitigate this problem.

Lack of column declaration

While possible in current CSS, layouts with multiple columns can be complex to implement. With the current CSS, the process is often done using floating elements which are often rendered differently by different browsers, different computer screen shapes, and different screen ratios set on standard monitors.

Cannot explicitly declare new scope independently of position

Scoping rules for properties such as z-index look for the closest parent element with a position:absolute or position:relative attribute. This odd coupling has two undesired effects: 1) it is impossible to avoid declaring a new scope when one is forced to adjust an element's position, preventing one from using the desired scope of a parent element and 2) users are often not aware that they must declare position:relative or position:absolute on any element they want to act as "the new scope". Additionally, a bug in the Firefox browser prevents one from declaring table elements as a new css scope using position:relative (one can technically do so, but numerous graphical glitches result).

Poor Layout Controls for Flexible Layouts

While new additions to CSS3 provide a stronger, more robust layout feature-set, CSS is still very much rooted as a styling language, not a layout language. This problem has also meant that creating fluid layouts is still very much done by hand-coding CSS, and make the development of a standards-based WYSIWYG editor more difficult than expected.































Why to use CSS, its advantages

CSS stands for Cascading Style Sheet. CSS is used to improve the presentation of the content within HTML tags. Using CSS we can define different ways of content display based on the media.



WE will discuss some advantages of using CSS



Less code

As we define the property with value at a common style class and use the same class at different locations, so we use less code. Less code means less bandwidth consumption and easy to maintain the content.



Easy maintenance

As we define styles globally or at a common place so any changes became easy. For example in a site we have all the name of the products is displayed using a particular style property. Now by changing the style class at external style sheet for the product name we can change the style through out the site. We can keep more than one style sheet and use them based on requirement. With property inheritance methods maintaining of different styles of the same tag became easy.



Higher content to code ( tag ) ratio

We can achieve higher content to code ration in a page by using CSS as we can shift the style declarations to an external file. This is important for search engine point of view. We present less tags ( style tags ) and more content to the spiders for indexing.



First download of pages.

As browsers cache the style sheet page so the page loading became fast. The styles classes are not loaded from server each time different pages of same site using same CSS is used.



Flexibility in defining style.

The name cascading indicates that we can use more than one style and the priority is given to local styles first. We can override the global style declared and locally assign the style to the tag.





















Type Of Selectors



Class selectors

Used to define styles that can be used without redefining plain HTML tags.



ID selectors

Used to define styles relating to objects with a unique ID (most often layers)



The general syntax for a Class selector is:



.ClassSelector {Property:Value;}



For example:















This is a bold tag carrying the headline class




This is an italics tag carrying the headline class













Click here to open a window that shows the result of the above example.



Class selectors are used when you want to define a style that does not redefine an HTML tag entirely.



When referring to a Class selector you simply add the class to an HTML tag like in the above example (class="headline").



________________________________________

The general syntax for an ID selector is:



#IDSelector {Property:Value;}



For example:

THIS IS LAYER 1 POSITIONED AT 100,100

THIS IS LAYER 2 POSITIONED AT 140,140

Click here to open a window that shows the result of the above example.



ID selectors are used when you want to define a style relating to an object with a unique ID.



This selector is most widely used with layers (as in the above example), since layers are always defined with a unique ID.





SPAN and DIV as carriers



Two tags are particularly useful in combination with class selectors: and

.



Both are "dummy" tags that don't do anything in themselves. Therefore, they are excellent for carrying CSS styles.

is an "inline-tag" in HTML, meaning that no line breaks are inserted before or after the use of it.

is a "block tag", meaning that line breaks are automatically inserted to distance the block from the surrounding content (like

or

tags).

has a particular importance for layers. Since layers are separate blocks of information.

is an obvious choice when defining layers on your pages.

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